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Media > Principles of Multimedia

Principles of Multimedia

Principle of Multimedia
Principle of Spatial Contiguity
Principle of Temporal Contiguity
Principle of Coherence
Principle of Modality

Principle of Redundancy

Principle of Individual Differences

Principle of Practice

Principle of Learner Control

Principle of Personalization

The "principles of multimedia learning" advocated by Richard Mayer & Ruth Clark are explained in detail in the following sources:

Clark, Ruth (1999). Developing Technical Training: A Structured Approach for Developing Classroom and Computer-based Instructional Materials. ISPI
Richard Mayer (2001). Multi-Media Learning. Cambridge University Press
Clark, Ruth and Richard Mayer (2002). E-Learning and the Science of Instruction: Proven Guidelines for Consumers and Designers of Multimedia Learning. Jossey-Bass Pfeiffer
Clark, Ruth and Chopeta Lyons (2004). Graphics for Learning: Proven Guidelines for Planning, Designing and Evaluating Visuals in Training Materials. Jossey-Bass Pfeiffer

Multimedia Principles Affect on Learning

Based primarily on Mayer's research (2001), Clark and Mayer (2003) provide the following overview of multimedia principles and their effect on learning:

Multimedia Principles	Effect on Learning
Multimedia best use of words & pictures	Adding graphics to words can improve learning. Students learn better from words and pictures, rather than from words alone.
Spatial Contiguity best placement of words & pictures	Placing text near graphics improves learning. Students learn better when corresponding words and pictures are presented near rather than far from each other.
Temporal Contiguity best sequencing of words & pictures	Students learn better when corresponding words and pictures are presented simultaneously rather than successively.
Coherence "less is more"	Using gratuitous visuals, text, and sounds can hurt learning. Students learn better when extraneous words, pictures and sounds are excluded rather than included. Less is more: eye or ear "candy" can distract and actually hurt instruction by causing cognitive overload. Visual: Student learning is hurt when interesting but irrelevant words and pictures are added to a multimedia presentation. Sound: Student learning is hurt when interesting but irrelevant sounds and music are added to a multimedia presentation. Words: Student learning is improved when unneeded words are eliminated from a multimedia presentation.
Modality best use of visual and auditory channels	Explaining graphics with audio improves learning. Students learn better from animation and narration, than from animation and on-screen text.
Redundancy best use of text and audio	Explaining graphics with audio and redundant text can hurt learning. Avoid reading on-screen text. Students learn better from animation and narration, than from animation, narration, and on-screen text.
Individual Differences best use of prior knowledge	Design effects are stronger for low-knowledge learners than for high-knowledge learners and for high-spatial learner than than for low-spatial learners. These learners are equipped to use cognitive strategy to work around cognitive overload, distraction, or other effects of poor design.
Practice best interactions for learning	Frequent, distributed, problem-solving, job-context practice improves learning and transfer.
Learner Control vs. Program Control best navigation scheme	Most students learn more under program control. Adult learners require a sense of control to be able to establish a self-paced learning process.
Personalization engaging the learner	Use of conversational tone and pedagogical agents can increase learning

Content Presentation & Use of Graphics

Ruth Clark has emphasized that graphic technique can be used to specifically support learning of different types of content presentation.

Content Type	Graphic Support	Examples
Fact	Realistic illustrations of specific forms, screens, and equipment	Illustration of a software screen
Concept	Realistic illustrations of multiple examples of a concept	Pictures of excellent web pages to illustrate the concept of what makes an effective web page
Process	Animated diagrams illustrating stages of process	Activities in a computer network
Procedure	Video or animated demonstrations of near-transfer task being performed	Animation of how to use a software application
Principle	Video or diagrams of far-transfer tasks being performed	Video of effective sales closing techniques

Clark and Mayer (2003) offer the following recommendations for graphic support:

Knowledge Structures & Graphic Support
Type of Cognitive Structure	Description	Graphic Representation	Example
Process	Explain a cause-and-effect chain	Flow chart	Explanation of how the human ear works
Comparison	Compare and contrast two or more elements along several dimensions	Matrix	Comparison of two theories of learning with respect to nature of the learner, teacher, and instructional methods
Generalization	Describe main idea and supporting details	Branching tree	Presentation of thesis for the major causes of the American Civil War along with evidence
Enumeration	Present a list of items	List	List of the names of seven principles of multimedia design
Classification	Analyze a domain into sets and subsets	Hierarchy	Description of a biological classification system for sea animals

Use of Text & Graphics

General Multimedia Design Principles for Text and Illustrations
Concentrated	The key ideas are highlighted in the illustrations and in the text
Concise	Extraneous descriptions are minimized in the text and extraneous visual features are minimized in the illustrations
Correspondent	Corresponding illustrations and text segments are presented near each other on the page
Concrete	The text and illustrations are presented in ways that allow for easy visualization
Coherent	The presented material has a clear structure (e.g., a cause-and-effect chain)
Comprehensible	The text and illustrations are presented in ways that are familiar and allow the learner to apply relevant past experience
Codable	Key terms used in the text and key features of the illustration are used consistently and in ways that make them more memorable