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Instructional Design

Learning Objects

A Reusable Learning Object (RLO or LO) is the smallest element of meaningful instruction — independent of other pieces of instruction and correlated with a specific learning objective. A single LO can be used in multiple contexts.

Learning objects are not yet an established technology, but rather a philosophy of how content can be created and deployed. A widely adopted industry standard, developed by ADL called the SCORM, defines a "SCO" (sharable content object), and provides a common method that makes content interoperable among Learning Management Systems (LMS). However, Learning Object methodology is still evolving toward more comprehensive and effective technology capabilities and standards:

• The technical problem involves interoperability, and automation for rapid development and deployment of instruction
• The instructional design problem involves automation to support personalized learning that embody effective instructional strategies responsive to the learning needs of an individual
• The economic problem throughout corporate and academic education is to gain efficiency in time, money, money, manpower and materials through re-use and sharing of instructional products
• The larger social problem is to achieve collaboration at strategic levels to:
  • Build curriculum in a manner that benefits the greatest number of people and advances civilization
  • Provide teachers with the needed resources, instructional materials and "best practice" models that benefit their students

LO Structure & Function

The architecture separates content, display and navigation; but then seeks to bind the instructional materials into a coherent learning experience based on instructional strategy.

• Binding Learning Objects into topics, lessons and courses is a virtual process so that reuse is achieved programmatically.
• This approach promises immense cost savings as compared to embedded structures that require extensive manual rework in order for instructional materials to be reused.
• Virtual binding requires calling the appropriate Learning Object in an appropriate sequence by dynamic linking. Learning Objects are entered and exited, and chained together (aggregated) through dynamic linking. The presentation shell common to the topic, lesson or course is modified as required, also by dynamic linking.
• The crucial requirement is have this process embody a sound learning strategy — "to automatically and dynamically compose personalized lessons." This is the technical challenge for instructional design and delivery that is only partially achieved at this time.

Learning Objects are a new way of thinking about learning content design, development and delivery. Instead of providing all of the material for an entire course or lecture, a Learning Object only seeks to provide material for a single lesson or lesson-topic within a larger course. Examples of LOs include simulations, interactive data sets, quizzes, surveys, annotated texts, adaptive learning modules.

In general, LOs have the following characteristics

• Self-contained – each LO can be consumed independently
• Reusable – a single LO may potentially be used in multiple contexts for multiple purposes on multiple campuses
• Can be aggregated – LOs can be grouped into larger collections, allowing for their inclusion within a traditional course structure
• Tagged with metadata – every LO has descriptive information allowing it to be easily found by a search -- which facilitates the object being used by others
• Just enough – if you need only part of a course, you can use only the LOs you need
• Just in time – LOs are searchable, you can instantly find and take the content you need
• Just for you – LOs allow for easy customization of courses for a whole organization or even for each individual

A LO does not have a predetermined size. Granularity of a Learning Object can extend from sub-topics to topics to lessons, and their associated media elements. Collections of LO topics aggregate to form lessons, modules, courses, and curriculum libraries.

Note that Learning Objects at topic level can be aggregated to form E-Learning lessons (instruct), and also used as topic resources for Knowledge Management reference resources (inform), and as Performance Support wizards and cue cards (guide).

The following hierarchy represents a common way of planning content organization. Topic level is a composition of digital media elements: text, graphics, animation, audio, video, and interactive user interface components.

Because granularity can include any size, the term Learning Object can be used in misleading ways. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), for instance, has developed the following definition which is so broad as to include almost anything that exists: "any entity, digital or non-digital, that may be used for learning, education or training." For our purposes here, the meaningfulness of a LO is achieved only when it serves as a concrete implementation tool for instructional strategy.

The term LO is meaningful only if it achieves the instructional author's learning intent and is reusable.

• Accessibility: the LO should be tagged with metadata so that it can be stored and referenced in a database
• Reusability: once created, the LO should function in different instructional contexts:
  •  Original learning intent and strategy effectively embodied by the author
  •  Capable of re-purposing for new learning intent & strategy
  •  Adaptive use by new authors, instructors, and learners
• Interoperability: the LO should be independent of both the delivery media and learning management systems.

A typical instructional presentation includes an Introduction, Body, Conclusion and Assessment in order to effectively deliver Gagné's nine events of instruction. Key instructional elements involve present content (facts, concepts, processes, procedures, principles), demonstrate, practice (require active learning), and assess (measure results of instruction).

Instructional integrity or "soundness" is depends upon presenting a meaningfully complete learning sequence. Learning Objects must either achieve instructional integrity as a single unit, or establish instructional integrity by aggregating several complimentary Learning Objects.

A Learning Object can be defined from a technology standpoint as a "Defined Structure of Tagged Files".

But more importantly, from an instructional design standpoint, a Learning Object can be defined as "Encapsulation of Content within a Learning Strategy."

In this illustration, a Course is composed of modules of both online Learning Objects, as well as Lectures, Classroom exercises, Textbook assignments, Video assignments and Discussions that provide a "blended learning" course presentation.

A Reusable Learning Object (as advocated by Cisco Systems) is typically conceived as having a fundamental structure that includes these minimum components:

• Objective — anchors the intent and scope of the LO
• Metadata — often utilizing XML as a universal or common tagging language across various platforms
• Content — allows digital assets to be presented in a form that is interactive
• Practice — allows digital assets to be presented in a form that is interactive, and requires active responding by the learner
• Assessment — allows digital assets to be presented in a form that is interactive, requiring pre and post assessment events
• Digital assets — include a combination of text, graphics, animation, audio, video, and interactive user interface components.

This graphic illustrates Cicco's strategy of assembling Resusable Information Objects (RIO) to form a Reusable Learning Object (RLO). Recognizing the truth of M. David Merrill's dictim: "Information is not instruction" — the RLO systematically packages information in a form that elicits active learning.

Uses of Learning Objects

Learning objects can be retrieved and used in the following ways:

• reusable portfolio/ archive/ repository
• remediation
• reference
• supplemental material
• support different learning styles
• support different learning speeds
• provide examples of previously completed work
• support learning disabilities
• enable exploration / discovery such as interdisciplinary areas of interest
• support independent study
• provide inquiry-based examples
• support an E-Learning strategy for life-long learning
• provide instruction resources for new teachers

Learning Object Anatomy & Packaging

Learning Objects are produced using a variety of development tools, stored in a database (LO repository), retrieved, and presented through the appropriate delivery system.

The LO is a coherent instructional experience that organizes content presentation, practice and assessment around a single objective.

Two ways of illustrating Learning Object "anatomy" are presented by Macromedia and IDC. Note that a common structural premise is the role of XML Metadata to provide a container or wrapper for the Learning Object:

Typical components or properties of a Learning Object that may be annotated in metadata can include:

• General Descriptive Data (course identifiers; language of content, ie. English, Spanish, etc.; descriptive text; descriptive keywords; meta tags that drive Document Object Hierarchy, content organization & aggregation)
• Life Cycle (version; status)
• Learning Objectives
• User Context or Mode ( information — reference; instruction: presentation — practice; exercise; simulation; performance support — guidance)
• Instructional Content (text; HTML pages; images; animation; Flash movies; audio; video; instructional event methods and procedures; etc.)
• Practice (instructional event tasks, methods, media, procedures)
• Presentation & Navigation Framework (template identifier; CSS identifier; User Interface, interactivity & aggregation parameters)
• Glossary (terms, definition, acronyms, semantic markup tags)
• Assessments: Tests, Quizzes, Surveys (questions; answers; database procedures)
• Rights (cost; copyrights; restrictions on use)
• Relationship to Other Courses (prerequisite courses or mastery criteria)
• Educational Level (grade level; age range; typical learning time; difficulty; learning style characteristics/preferences)

The SCORM Standard

SCORM stands for Shareable Content Object Reference Model. SCORM was created by the Advanced Distributed Learning initiative (ADL) in response to requirements presented by the Department of Defense for "anytime, anywhere" instruction that is essential to maintaining military readiness in the information age. ADL evolved as a consortium of government, industry, and education leaders.

A SCO is a "shareable content object" that can be reliably retrieved and launched by a Learning Management System (LMS) for presentation to a learner.

SCORM defines the aggregation model for packaging learning content, and defines an API enabling communications between learning content and the system that launches it. Packaging is an XML operation that takes a set of learning elements and meta tags them appropriately for use.

This is a representation of a SCORM compliant "package" that holds a Learning Object in a form that can be retrieved and delivered by programmatic command.

E-Learning Standards have emerged in the industry (AICC, SCORM, IMS) to support the development of Learning Objects that can be interoperable with each other, with different Learning Management Systems (LMS, LCMS) and across different computer platforms. These standards describe:

• Content packaging — best practices and specifications;
• Metadata to index and search LOs;
• Learning object attributes (pre-requisites, objectives);
• Methods of communication between LOs and Learning Management Systems (for tracking purposes.)

Here is an illustration of an LMS utilizing the SCORM protocol to store, retrieve and present a SCO.

Learning Object Resources

Cisco Systems has been one of the earliest and most influential pioneers in the Learning Object approach. The following resources are a systematic presentation of their RLO methodology that is based on several years of practical experience:

• Reusable Learning Object Authoring Guidelines: How to Build Modules, Lessons, and Topics. (2003) Cisco Systems Whitepaper
• E-Leaning Content Management vs Content Delivery (2002) Cisco Systems Whitepaper
• Enhancing the Learner Experience (2003) Cisco Systems Whitepaper
• Network based transformation in Education (2002) Cisco Systems Whitepaper
• Transforming the purpose, practice and performance of Government (2002) Cisco Systems Whitepaper

One of the most comprehensive books on Learning Objects has been written by Chuck Barritt and F. Lee Alderman.

Creating A Reusable Learning Objects Strategy: Leveraging Information and Learning in a Knowledge Economy  (2004), Chuck Barritt & F. Lee Alderman, Pfeiffer/ John Wiley & Sons, Pub.

An extremely useful online book, "The Instructional Use of Learning Objects", has been developed and edited by David Wiley. Chapters have been contributed by key researchers and technologists. The book is divided into five major sections:

1. Learning objects explained
2. Learning objects and constructivist thought
3. Learning objects and people
4. Learning objects implementation war stories
5. Learning objects and the future.

Eduworks Corporation has provided an online resource: Learning Object Tutorial that includes a summary table of Pros and Cons of Learning Objects.

A Learning Objects Portal has been developed by ilearn at Seneca College, Canada, to provide links to information, resources, repositories, tools, best practices, issues, activities, who's who in the Canadian learning object community.

Authoring Software

Instructional authoring software is specially designed to enable creation of online learning modules that include the key learning elements:

• Presentation: Text & Graphics
• Animation
• Questions
• Links to Appropriate Learning Material Based on Learner's Responses
• Tracking of student performance

Typical features of an authoring environment include:

• Support of large team development efforts (version control)
• Use of templates to speed up development
• Facilitate software application training (screen capture & display)
• Enable rapid content changes
• Store a library of reusable content objects (learning objects)
• Allows novice users (non-programmers) to create E-Learning
• Enable interactive capabilities beyond simple page turning, multiple choice questions, and T/F questions
• Perform detailed testing and statistical analysis
• AICC / SCORM compliance
• Import content from MS Word and PowerPoint
• Allow experienced programmers to create complex interactions (go beyond the pre-programmed templates)
• Support discovery exercises
• Works well with streaming audio technologies
• End products can be hosted on web server

Instructional authoring software is a robust and highly competitive industry. Diverse examples of authoring software tools available in 2004 are the following:

The following are currently popular authoring software tools particularly suited for building simulations and software demonstrations:

• Articulate Presenter
• Camtasia Studio
• Macromedia Breeze
• Macromedia Director
• Macromedia Flash MX
• Macromedia Captivate (formerly RoboDemo)
• Macromedia RoboHelp X5
• Viewletbuilder

Definitions

References

 Creating a Reusable Learning Objects Strategy: Leveraging Information and Learning in a Knowledge Economy (2002), F. Lee Alderman, Jr., Chuck Barritt, Pfeifer Publishing

 "The Instructional Use of Learning Objects" Online Book, developed and edited by David Wiley. Dr. Wiley (Utah State University) also maintains a BLOG dealing with instructional technology issues.

 Utah State University OpenCourseWare is a free and open educational resource for faculty, students, and self-learners. Dr. David Wiley offers an online course, Understanding Online Interaction.

 A Guide to Learning Object Repositories is maintained by UTSA (University of Texas San Antonio)

 Reusable Learning Object Strategy. (Cisco whitepaper. Version 3.1)

 A primer on learning objects. (Learningcircuits article by Warren Longmire)

 Learning object pioneers. (Larningcircuits article by Tom Barron)

 Everything you ever wanted to know about learning standards but were afraid to ask. (Linezine article by Wayne Hodgins and Marcia Conner)

 Use and Abuse of Resusable Learning Objects, Journal of Digital Information, Vol 3 #4, by Pithamber Polsani, Learning Technology Center, Univ of Arizona

 "Knowledge Objects", M. David Merrill. CBT Solutions, March/April, pp 6-11.

 "Knowledge Objects and Mental Models (2000), M. David Merrill. In D.A. Wiley (ED. The Instructional Use of Learning Objects. Washington D.C.: Assoc for Educational Communications and Technology.

 "Connecting learning objects to instructional design theory: A definition, a metaphor, and a taxonomy ", David Wiley. The Instructional Use of Learning Objects. Washington D.C.: Assoc for Educational Communications and Technology.

 "Learning Objects: A Practical Definition", Rory McGreal. The Internatonal Journal of Instruction Technology & Distance Learning. Duquesne Univeristy, Pittsburg PA,, Sept 2004.

Learning Object Specifications and Standards

 http://www.adlnet.org/ - Advanced Distributed Learning Consortium (Shareable Content Object Reference Model)

 http://www.ariadne-eu.org/ — ARIADNE, European agency for developing specifications and standards for learning technologies

 http://www.imsproject.org/ — IMS Global Consortium , develops specifications and standards for learning technologies)

 http://www.aicc.org/ — The AICC web site

 The Advanced Distributed Learning initiative. (Source of SCORM).

 The IEEE Learning Technology Standards Committee. (Source of learning object metadata)

 The IMS Global Learning Consortium. (Source of content packaging)

LMS LCMS

Learning Objects

Types of Instruction